July 15 marks the 616th anniversary of the Battle of Grunwald (also known as the Battle of Žalgiris), one of the largest and bloodiest clashes of the Middle Ages. On this day in 1410, tens of thousands of soldiers from across Europe met on a single field, permanently shifting the regional balance of power. For Poland and Lithuania, the victory initiated a golden age and a flourishing alliance. For the Teutonic Order, which until 1410 was Europe’s dominant military-religious state with a highly advanced economy and army, the defeat began its decline. The Order never recovered, rapidly losing territory, power, and influence.
Today, the victory is celebrated not only in Poland and Lithuania, but also in Ukraine, Belarus, Russia, and the Czech Republic—whose soldiers fought on both sides. During the Middle Ages, armies were organized territorially rather than nationally. Soldiers from the same region fought side-by-side under a shared banner, known as a horugv. The only exception were the Tatars. Though they lived in various parts of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, they united on the battlefield to form a swift, cohesive cavalry unit under the command of Grand Duke Vytautas.
Three Names for the Battle of Grunwald
Each participating nation calls the battle by a different name, based on local geography and language. In Poland, it is known as Bitwa pod Grunwaldem, named after the village of Grunwald where the Crusaders’ camp was located. In Lithuania, it is called Žalgirio mūšis, a literal translation of the German “Grunwald” (žalias meaning green, and giria meaning forest). In Germany, the clash is known as the Battle of Tannenberg (Schlacht bei Tannenberg), named after the village where the heaviest fighting took place.
Three Days on the Battlefield
The fighting spanned the wide fields between Grunwald, Tannenberg (now Stębark), and Łodwigowo. The battle lasted more than 10 hours, an extraordinarily long and exhausting engagement for the medieval era.
After the fighting ended, the allied army remained on the battlefield for three days. By personal order of King Władysław II Jagiełło, the body of the fallen Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen and other high-ranking Teutonic officials were sent with honors to their capital at Marienburg Castle. Ordinary soldiers from both sides were buried in mass graves on the field of Grunwald.
Today, the site is a large open memorial complex rather than the dense woodland of 1410. To mark the 550th anniversary of the battle, a granite monument with 30-meter masts symbolizing the allied banners was erected. The on-site museum displays damaged armor and weapons excavated from the battlefield.
Different Armies, Different Philosophies: Vytautas and Jagiełło
The allied forces were led by the Polish King Władysław II Jagiełło and his cousin, Grand Duke Vytautas of Lithuania. Their army numbered between 29,000 and 39,000 men. It was a diverse coalition, comprising heavy Polish cavalry, light Lithuanian horsemen, regiments from Smolensk and Kyiv, and Czech and Tatar detachments.
The Teutonic Knights, numbering between 21,000 and 27,000, were outnumbered but possessed superior armor and discipline. The knight-brothers in their white cloaks with black crosses, alongside Western European mercenaries and troops from Prussian towns, operated as a highly coordinated, heavily armored force.
The Strategy of Vytautas and Jagiełło
Tactics, mobility, and the strategy of Vytautas and Jagiełło became the deciding factors. The battle began with a war of nerves on July 15 under a scorching sun. Confident in their superiority, the Teutonic forces drew up in battle formations early in the morning. The knights and their warhorses, clad in heavy armor, waited in the heat while the enemy remained out of sight.
While the Germans waited in the sun, the allied army stayed in the shade of the forest. King Jagiełło ordered a field chapel set up and attended multiple morning masses. Meanwhile, Vytautas organized the multilingual forces within the forest, which concealed their actual numbers. This allowed the allied soldiers to rest and drink water before the clash, while the Crusaders remained exposed to the heat.
After hours of waiting, Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen sent two unsheathed swords to the allied commanders—a gesture intended to provoke the allies into leaving the forest and initiating the combat.
When the allies finally advanced, they denied the exhausted Crusaders their primary advantage: a devastating frontal charge. The light Lithuanian and Tatar cavalry utilized a feigned retreat early in the battle. Believing they had broken the line, the German knights broke their tight formation to pursue them, falling into a trap.
The presence of Tatars on the battlefield has its own historical background. In the late 14th century, Khan Tokhtamysh—who burned Moscow in 1382—lost power to Tamerlane and fled to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Vytautas welcomed him, hoping to help him reclaim his throne to secure the Grand Duchy’s eastern borders and build good relations with the Golden Horde. Tatar warriors arrived in Lithuania with their families. Vytautas settled them near Vilnius, Trakai, Grodno, and Navahrudak, granting them land and privileges in exchange for military service.
Although Tokhtamysh was dead by 1410, his son, Jalal al-Din, honored the alliance and led the Tatar cavalry at Grunwald. While the cavalry maneuvered, three regiments from Smolensk bore the brunt of the Teutonic heavy frontal assault, holding their ground to prevent the center of the allied army from collapsing.
Heavy Casualties of the Battle of Žalgiris
By medieval standards, the casualties were immense. The Teutonic army was largely destroyed, suffering up to 12,000 killed (nearly half of their force) and approximately 14,000 captured. The leadership of the Order was wiped out, including the Grand Master, the Grand Marshal, the Treasurer, and more than 200 knight-brothers.
The allies also suffered significant losses, with an estimated 4,000 to 5,000 killed and wounded. The Lithuanian, Tatar, and Smolensk regiments, which took the brunt of the initial charge, suffered the heaviest casualties. The Polish forces engaged later, resulting in fewer overall casualties, though many prominent nobles were killed.
The Fate of the Prisoners and Jagiełło’s Diplomacy
The victors captured 14,000 prisoners. Their fates were decided pragmatically. Ordinary soldiers and mercenaries were released after a few days, as feeding them was costly and they yielded no ransom. They were simply made to swear an oath to report to Krakow in the autumn. While few returned, reports of this leniency spread throughout Europe.
High-ranking knights, however, were imprisoned in Polish and Lithuanian castles. The Teutonic Order later paid substantial ransoms in gold for their release, throwing the Crusader state into a severe financial crisis.
Jagiełło used some high-status prisoners for diplomatic leverage. For instance, Duke Konrad VII the White of Oleśnica, an ally of the Order, was captured personally by the king. He was released only after swearing never to bear arms against Poland again.
Symbols of Pride: From Lithuania to the United States
Memory of the victory remains a key historical reference for several nations, reflected in art, heraldry, and sports:
- The Žalgiris Brand: In Lithuania, the name is carried by major basketball and football clubs, stadiums, and 70 streets across the country. In Poland, 347 streets and squares are named after Grunwald.
- Inspiration for the Czech Hussites: The victory at Grunwald influenced Czech society during the Hussite Wars (1419–1434) by demonstrating that Western European knights could be defeated in battle.
- The Banner with the Red Crayfish: This was the standard of Jan Sokol of Lamberk, who commanded the Czech and Moravian contingent at Grunwald (the future Hussite leader Jan Žižka was his close associate). Today, Czech historical reenactment groups display this white banner with a red crayfish during annual commemorations in Poland.
- Two Artistic Masterpieces: In 1878, Polish artist Jan Matejko completed his massive painting “The Battle of Grunwald,” focusing on the intense momentum of the assault. His portrayal of Vytautas in red garb with a raised sword became an iconic image. In contrast, Czech artist Alphonse Mucha’s painting “After the Battle of Grunwald” (part of his *Slav Epic*) depicts King Jagiełło surveying the corpse-strewn field the following morning, emphasizing the human cost of the conflict over the glory of victory.
- The Grunwald Swords: Before the battle, Teutonic heralds delivered two bare swords to Jagiełło and Vytautas as a challenge. The swords subsequently became symbols of the victory and remain historical emblems of Polish-Lithuanian cooperation.
- The Wawel Monument: This large monument in Krakow was destroyed by German forces during World War II. It was rebuilt in 1976, depicting Jagiełło on horseback, Vytautas, and the fallen Jungingen at their feet.
- The New York Monument: A bronze statue of Jagiełło holding crossed swords stands in Central Park. Originally brought by Poland for the 1939 World’s Fair, the monument remained in the United States after the outbreak of World War II prevented its return. It was preserved in Central Park with the support of Mayor Fiorello La Guardia.
The Impact of an Unexpected Victory
Had the Teutonic Order won in 1410, the battle likely would have been recorded as an expected victory for a highly organized force. In modern terms, the heavily equipped and professionally trained Teutonic Knights entered the conflict as clear favorites.
Despite their numbers, the allied forces were viewed as underdogs. Their unexpected triumph created a major sensation across Europe. Because the ancestors of several modern nations fought together on that field, the memory of the battle continues to be preserved centuries later.